Electronic notepad Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Electronic notepad - Essay Example Elecwrit notebooks will be small in size, portable, simple, customized covering and exclusively for writing purpose. In the start we will only target the Melbourne market however, at later stages we aim to target customer segments from other geographical regions of Australia. We will target the customers based on their income level and profession. Our major target market segments include students and working professionals. We will adopt premium pricing strategy in the beginning however, at later stages we may switch to price penetration strategy. To promote the products we will create a strong marketing campaign in which we will participate in the trade fairs and we will also visit the universities, colleges and companies. We will offer special wholesale packages to the universities and companies in the beginning. The financial information in the report shows that we will require an initial capital of $400,000 to start up the company and in the first year of operations our net profit is expected to be above $90,000. Therefore, we believe that Elecwrit will be a successful venture. Elecwrit offers high quality electronic products to those who are seeking trendy, stylish and easily portable products. We offer our products to a broad spectrum of consumers by offering them at affordable prices. To select the target market, the market segmentation strategy will be demographics market segmentation. The two variables including the income level and profession will be selected to segment the Australian market. Since the company will start its operations from the Melbourne market therefore, at the initial stage only the universities and companies in Melbourne will be targeted. Following table shows the target market of Elecwrit. We aim to target students and professionals with the income level of $5000 and above. The income level represents the individual income and not the household income. Since students

The Lament for Ignacio Sanchez Mejias Essay Example for Free

The Lament for Ignacio Sanchez Mejias Essay Just like Helen Keller who attempted to attain the summit of her life through her incessant perseverance, I have also been doing my best efforts to achieve constant self-improvement and to work toward my maximum self-actualization. Both Helen Keller and I share one thing in common, that is, we adhere to the same spirit of perseverance and self-perfection. Nevertheless, there is one essential difference. What Helen Keller was trying to do was to overcome her physical predicaments and constraints so that she could behave and do things like a normal person. Being a normal person, I would like to tap my potential to the fullest possible extent so that I can achieve academic and professional excellence necessary for becoming an elite of the emerging young generation. The rapidly growing Chinese economy seems to be providing us with an unprecedented opportunity to our personal fulfillment. Under such circumstances, what we should do is to become fully prepared to embark on our journey of life, to venture into deep waters. As a matter of fact, I have already been making some of the most important preparations for my ambitious undertaking in the future. I completed my undergraduate education from 1998 to 2002 in the specialty of marketing at the Business Administration Department of Institute of XX. Although the Institute is by no means the most prestigious one in China, I have been one of the best students in this Institute. Drawing inspirations from Einstein’s assertion that diligence accounts for 99% of a person’s success, I have endeavored to prove this doctrine through my concrete action. At the very outset of my undergraduate program, I decided that I must make maximum use of all the educational resources available to improve and perfect my knowledge. By the time I graduated, I proved that my undergraduate life was a very rewarding one, embodied in my satisfactory academic performance, important extracurricular activities, a spate of honors and awards, well-developed personal qualities, and recruitment by my Alma Mater. As part of my personal development, my undergraduate career was characterized by constant improvement in academic performance. By the time I became a junior, I was ranked top three in my class. My diligence, sound analytical ability and strong interest in my chosen specialty, all those factors contributed to my sustained scholastic success. Marketing is a subject that encompasses knowledge in economics, management, psychology and other disciplines. This interdisciplinary nature of marketing, plus the challenges of creative thinking that it poses to its learner, helped to strengthen my interest in it as I delved deeper into this subject. As a result, I managed to achieve quite satisfactory scores in all the core courses—Business Psychology, Marketing, International Marketing, Modern Enterprise Management, Public Relations, Market Survey and Prediction, etc. Meanwhile, benefiting from the systematic and rigorous training in economics and management, I have considerably enhanced my analytical skills, which gradually permitted me to grasp the essence of the matter amidst apparently complicated business issues. I also started to reflect on some basis but specific problems in our economy, such as â€Å"Why none of Chinese enterprises have so far failed to enter the world’s top 500? † During my undergraduate program, my academic commitment did not in the least affect my extensive extracurricular involvements. On the contrary, those involvements served to develop my management capacity, interpersonal communication and teamwork. I was a journalist of our Institute’s Journalism Association, reporting on major campus events. I was the chief debater of our Department’s Debate Team and by working closely with my tem members, we won the first prize in our Institute for two consecutive years. My other extracurricular positions included assistant director of the Study Department of the Students Union, director of the Social Practice Department of the Institute’s Students Union, and a member of the Institute’s Students Committee. One thing that should be stressed is that, as director of the Social Practice Department, I successfully launched the final match of Miss Network in XX Province, which was part of XX The match, designed to popularize Internet knowledge and show the charm of the learned women students, produced quite a local sensation. As the main planner of the event, I met and overcame major challenges. I believe I will derive lifelong benefit from this experience. To be engaged in high-level business management has always been my professional objective. As far as I am concerned, this challenging profession is what I am most interested in, one which can allow me to apply my knowledge and expertise to face challenges. With China’s reform toward the market economy, a large number of big enterprises have been created, but over the past two decades, no Chinese enterprise can be found in the world’s top 500. An important factor is that we lack true entrepreneurs and effective ideas of modern strategic marketing and management. This situation calls for well-trained business administrators with international perspectives. An important purpose of your MBA education is to provide systematic theoretical support for solving various business problems while equipping future enterprise administrators with all the necessary managerial skills. In addition, I am deeply fascinated by your MBA program’s competitive and international character. In my proposed program, I will continue to focus on marketing, with special emphasis on studying the advanced marketing strategies and concepts of the world’s top enterprises. It is my conviction that, against the background of economic globalization, an international education can give me far more than the mere knowledge and skills of business administration. As a necessary foundation for my prospective MBA program, I will have accumulated two years of work experience (from 2002 to 2004). Upon completing my undergraduate program, due to my distinguished performance in academic, extracurricular and moral conduct, I was recruited by my Alma Mater to take up a teaching position as a teaching assistant while concomitantly serving as student councilor. For more than one year by now, I have been managing more than 700 students in an entire grade in XX. Although my responsibilities are not those typical of an enterprise, I have derived much pleasure of successful management in ensuring the smooth operation of student life and activities, in addition to promoting my sense of responsibility and managerial expertise. Admittedly, there are important differences between the management of students and the management of employees in an enterprise, I have consciously and creatively applied my knowledge of human resource management that I learned in my management courses. This makes me realize that many theories and approaches of commercial and industrial management can be equally effectively applied to the management of non-profit organizations to improve their operation efficiency. As one of the best-loved XX universities, XX University enjoys a very high prestige for its MBA education. What this University really attracts me is that your university attaches great importance to group research and small-class education whereby students are allowed to collaborate with senior professors to undertake various interesting projects. I believe that this highly interactive and competitive educational model will be very appropriate for me in that it can fully draw out my potential in business management and lay a firm foundation for me to become a business management elite in China. In my proposed study, I will stick to my usual way of self-development—constantly transcending my former self in pursuit of a life of sustained personal development. Just as what Helen Keller said: â€Å"The result of each attempt is a success, and along the ladder pieced together by each individual success, I will ultimately reach the grand altitudes in the deep of the azure clouds—the summit of my hope. †

Karl Marxs Communist Manifesto and Its Impact on Society Essay

Karl Marx's The Communist Manifesto and Its Impact on Society According to the humanities based themes, autonomy and responsibility are defined as â€Å"the individual person has the ability to make choices; with those choices comes a responsibility for the consequences of those choices.† [i] This can be related to the Communist Manifesto, which was written by Karl Marx in the 1800’s. Even deeper though, it correlates the class struggles that were apparent in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Marx knew there was a division of classes; the bourgeoisie was the wealthy upper class and they proletariats were the lower working classes of Europe. This is where the theme of autonomy and responsibility steps in and plays a role in the changes that were made in society. The proletariats recognized that they were treated unfairly, which led them to the decision of stepping up and taking a stand. Through the Communist Manifesto, they took responsibility and attained the equality they felt they deserved. The problem with society during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was the equality of all persons was few and far between. The bourgeoisie was in control of all the power and the proletariats were basically under their control. It was as if the bourgeoisie â€Å"originated out of the old medieval peasant class, in opposition to the medieval titled aristocracy.† [ii] They had taken over everything; the oppressed class lived by their rules and ways of life. Their way of life was not a happy one; family was based upon money instead of love. â€Å"Capital developed in the same proportion as the class of laborers developed.† ii Life then seemed simple for those living the life of the bourgeoisie, b... ...http://www.as.udayton.edu/hbase/themes.htm > (10 Mar 2002). [ii] Marx, Karl. â€Å"Manifesto of the Communist Party. I. Bourgeois and Proletarians.† 4 May 2002. (10 Mar 2002). [iii] Elizondo, Sonny. â€Å"Classic Note on Communist Manifesto.† 17 July 2000. (10 Mar 2002). [iv] Elizondo, Sonny. â€Å"Classic Note on Communist Manifesto.† 17 July 2000. (10 Mar 2002). Other links: http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~socappeal/150years/ http://www.classicnote.com/ClassicNotes/sources/communist.html http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~brians/hum_303/manifesto.html

Test Corrections

2. John Wesley is associated with the founding of what religious sect? I chose to omit this question because I couldn’t remember with which â€Å"ism† John Wesley was associated. The correct answer is c. Methodism because in the â€Å"Impact of the Enlightenment† PowerPoint, a parenthetical mentions John Wesley in the description of Methodism. 6. Romanticism changed the direction of the Enlightenment by emphasizing†¦ I answered a. skepticism which is incorrect because skepticism was more of a defining characteristic for movements like the Scientific Revolution. The correct answer is c. emotion because Romanticism was a focus on the individual and nature which were ofter very emotional ordeals. 8. The Encyclopedia contributed to Enlightenment goals of social reform by†¦ I answered c. providing systematic plans for social reform that could be used by anyone who was able to read which is incorrect because the Encyclopedia itself was not about social reform, and even if someone could read, he or she wouldn’t necessarily be able to understand the Encyclopedia. The correct answer is a. romoting the spread of knowledge that would be used to make informed decisions about social problems because the Encyclopedia’s direct influence was its spread of knowledge, which, in turn, was used to make informed decisions. 13. â€Å"In every government, there are three sorts of power†¦when the legislative and executive are united in the same person or in the same body of magistrates, there can be no liberty because†¦the same monarc h or senate†¦(may) enact tyrannical laws. † The author of this passage was: I answered e. Rousseau which is incorrect because although Rousseau favored epublicanism as stated in his The Social Contract, he never really made the distinction between the three branches of government. The correct answer is a. Montesquieu because he made the distinction of dividing the â€Å"administrative† powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches. 14. Voltaire’s statement â€Å"Ecrasez l’infame† (crush the infamous thing) refers to†¦ I answered a. the government of Louis XIV which is incorrect because Louis XIV died in 1715 when Voltaire was only 18 years old and hadn’t begun his writing career. The correct answer is b. igotry and intolerance because he thought that the royalty and the clergy bred â€Å"superstition and intolerance† within the people. 18. In his campaign for greater toleration, French Huguenot refugee Pierre Bayl e (1647-1706) published his Historical and Critical Dictionary, which†¦ I answered d. was an attempt to offer clear definitions of commonly used religious terminology that Bayle felt was too often misunderstood, a contributing factor to religious intolerance which is incorrect because Bayle’s Historical and Critical Dictionary wasn’t a literal dictionary in which terms were defined. The correct answer is c. listed the errors and delusions of an entire host of writers on religion in an effort to show that religions must be held accountable to reason because the word â€Å"dictionary† simply refers to the writers on religion, and rather that blaming religious terminology for religious intolerance, he wanted to express that religions should be held accountable to reason. 19. What is a major way that the Enlightenment in France differed from that in Germany? I answered a. The German government wholeheartedly supported its intellectuals, including Lessing and Kant, while France’s philosophes faced censorship or arrest which is incorrect because this answer has the trigger word â€Å"wholeheartedly,† and philosophes faced censorship throughout Europe. The correct answer is c. French philosophes were far more aggressive in their condemnation of church and state than were German scholars because France has a history of breaking from the church freely such as with the Papal Schism, while Germany, being consumed by the Holy Roman Empire was tied closer with the church. 1. The only enlightened ruler who ended the personal aspects of serfdom was†¦ I answered a. Catherine the Great of Russia which is incorrect because although the serfs under Catherine had limited rights, they were still bound to their nobles’ land, and were still owned by these nobles. The correct answer is b. Joseph II of Austria because his Imperial Patent of 1785 abolished serfdom. 25. The spread of Enlightenment ideals and the emergence of a more prosperous middle class in Europe were also reflected in music with†¦ I answered d. rejection of baroque and all older styles of musical composition in favor of continuous innovation and experimentation which is incorrect because this answer has the trigger word â€Å"all,† and music at this time didn’t completely reject baroque styles because old styles will always be the basis for new styles. The correct answer is b. the transition from complex polyphony to an emphasis on more popularly accessible melody because this reflects a prosperous middle class which was both popular and accessible. 26. The Gordon riots, which devastated much of London in 1780, served as an xample of the fact that†¦ I answered b. eighteenth-century governments, though aspiring to modern state management, were still far from their espoused goals which is incorrect because the Gordon riots rooted in p olitical grievances as much as they were in religious agitation brought about by the Protestants. The correct answer is d. popular demonstrations did not always support reforms because the riots’ most prevalent effect was that Britain’s reputation was damaged right when they needed allies the most in the American War of Independence. 30. Which of the following is INCORRECTLY matched? I answered c. Catherine the Great—Instruction which is incorrect because Catherine did in fact write this work whose full title was â€Å"Instructions for the Guidance of the Assembly. † The correct answer is e. Moses Mendelssohn—Confessions because Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote this, while Moses Mendelssohn wrote works such as his Philosophical Conversations. 32. The most important contribution Catherine the Great made early in her reign was the†¦ I chose to omit this question because although I knew Catherine’s overall importance as an enlightened despot, I wasn’t sure on the specific contributions she made early on. The correct answer is a. stablishment of a legislative commission to review the laws of Russia because this was a real effort to share the power over Russia with a republican council in which the people could theoretically be represented. 49. Charlotte Corday assassinated Jean-Paul Marat in July 1793, in the belief that†¦ I answered d. Mara t had engineered the arrest and execution of Danton and his followers. which is incorrect because she wasn’t specifically concerned with avenging Danton’s death, but rather felt that she was avenging all of France. The correct answer is c. she was avenging innocent people executed because Marat had called for their heads. ecause even in her trial she claimed, â€Å"I killed one man to save 100,000,† showing her concern with the shear massiveness and unjustness of Marat’s Reign of Terror. 52. The fall from grace of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety came about when Robespierre†¦ I answered d. inaugurated a Cult of the Supreme Being, which many Catholics viewed as a brazen and blasphemous attempt to replace Christianity. which is incorrect because although anti-religious member of the Committee of Public Safety opposed this decree, they didn’t really do anything concrete about it. The correct answer is a. began to order the execution of members of the Convention itself. because the planned strike against Jean-Lambert Tallien and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier who were members of the Committee of General Security really was what tore the Committee of Public Safety apart and led to the arrest of Robespierre. 54. During the era of the French Revolution, the Thermidorian Reaction†¦ I chose to omit this question because I couldn’t remember whether the Thermidorian Reaction led to the dissolution of the National Assembly or the Reign of Terror. The correct answer is a. terminated the Reign of Terror and led to the execution of Robespierre. because it was the month of Thermidor when Robespierre’s planned strike against members of the Committee of General Security led to his execution. 55. The Committee of Public Safety was established to†¦ I answered e. train a new generation of intendants who were more loyal to the bourgeoisie government in power in 1794. which is incorrect because the Committee of Public Safety was more of military establishment whose purpose was to protect the new republic rather than to ensure loyalty. Loyalty was mainly ensured by the threat of the guillotine to anyone who resisted the republic. The correct answer is b. combat the dual threat of internal rebellion/counter-revolutionaries and foreign invasion. because it was a wartime measure put into place to protect the new and fragile republic. 59. According to the video and the text, what role did Jacques-Louis David play in the French Revolution? I answered d. He edited a newspaper that called for the execution of the king. which is incorrect because he was a painter, not a newspaper editor. The correct answer is c. He was an artist who painted images of the Revolution and planned revolutionary festivals. because he organized various festivals beginning with a parade through the streets of Paris to bury Voltaire at the Pantheon, and he was a Neoclassical painter who strayed away from classical Rococo grandeur. 60. When French armies occupied an area, they†¦ I answered a. brutally repressed the people living there according to the dictates of the Terror. which is incorrect because the Reign of Terror described the death of many by the guillotine, not by military brutality. The correct answer is b. introduced the laws of the French Republic, such as the abolition of seigneurial dues. because the abolition of seigneurial dues, one of many Enlightenment ideals being implemented at this time, was enacted by the National Constituent Assembly in the â€Å"August Decrees. † 62. Which of the following did NOT lead to the attack on the Bastille? I answered c. The marching of thousands of troops toward Paris by order of the king which is incorrect because the French Army was in fact encamped on the nearby Champs de Mars. The correct answer is b. The massacre by Louis XVI’s troops of members of the National Assembly because although Louis had planned to march into the Salle des Etats where the National Assembly met, but he never did, and therefore, his troops never massacred members of the National Assembly. 63. The achievements of the Jacobins included ALL of the following EXCEPT†¦ I answered a. abolition of slavery. which is incorrect because the Jacobins did in fact abolish slavery when they abolished feudalism. The correct answer is e. edistribution of all land among the peasants. because under the Jacobins, peasants only received limited rights and did not actually receive redistributed land. 65. Women†¦ I answered b. took few leadership roles in revolutionary activities. which is incorrect because women did in fact hold important roles in the French Revolution like with the Women’s March on Versailles and with influential female writers like Mary Wollstonecraft and Olympe de Gouges. The correct answer is d. joined demonstrations, wrote petitions and tracts, and organized political clubs. ecause women were in fact important to the Revolution and did all of these named revolutionary acts. 68. The term September Massacres refers to†¦ I answered b. The bloodiest days of the Reign of Terror; also known as the Great Terror which is incorrect because the September Massacres occurred over a year prior to the Reign of Terror. The correct answer is a. mobs that slaughtered over 1100 prisoners they believed were traitors because after Louis XVI fled the Tuileries Palace, a scared group made up mostly by sans-culottes massacred over 1100 Parisian prisoners.

Critical Response on “One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest” Essay

There have been many struggles in history between authority and those who oppose it. The most obvious and most common example is revolutions against governments. We live in a society where stability and assimilation are not just recommended, but also enforced. We have the right for civil disobedience, so long as it is non-violent and within reason. In the book, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, R.P McMurphy, a â€Å"brawling, gambling man† enters a mental asylum in Oregon, and begins to wage war â€Å"on behalf of his fellow inmates†. However he finds himself at odds with Nurse Ratched, a strict, manipulative and methodical woman who runs the ward like a â€Å"precision-made machine†. The book follows McMurphy’s actions that constantly clash with the Nurse, and what she represents: authority. By the end of the book, there are many examples of struggles against the higher power, and it is in my opinion that the statement â€Å"when authority and indi viduals come into conflict, authority always wins out† is incorrect, because individuals do not have to win the physical conflict to win the battle of brains. From day one, the reader finds that McMurphy is out to cause trouble. Gambling is illegal in the ward, but McMurphy declares that he was sent to the institution â€Å"to bring [the inpatients] some fun an’ entertainment around the gaming table†(p. 16). He starts interrupting daily meetings, which the Nurse treats with much importance. And whenever he is reprimanded for something, he laughs. The laughing is the most important part of his self-defence, as it is the only legal way he can fight back against authority. It is a symbol of defiance, and a sign of McMurphy’s freedom. It shows that, no matter what the institution does to him, he still has his mental independence. As the reader progresses further on in the story, McMurphy makes a bet that he can â€Å"get [the Nurse’s] ‘goat'†. When he finds he has no ward-clothes (p. 79), he runs around in a towel, threatening to drop it at times, while the distressed Nurse tries, in vain, to make him get dressed. Then, the same morning, he takes bets on his accuracy about throwing butter at the clock (p. 85). McMurphy wants to watch the World Series, and takes a vote from all the saner patients. While all of them vote to watch it, the Nurse shuts the  idea down, even when McMurphy gets the majority. When airing on television (p. 114), he stops work and proceeds to turn on the television, sit down, and watch the game. When the rest of the men decide to stop work and join him, and the Nurse turns the power off, they continue to watch, just to show that her power and authority has nothing over them. This is an example of individuals fighting against authority. They might not be successful in the real world (having to wear clothes, not being able to watch the baseball game), but inside they’re freer than they’ve ever been before. Being downtrodden and strict by the Nurse forced them to become less Things begin to grow bigger and more important as the story progresses. McMurphy realizes that his release is dependent on his good behavior, and tones down his obnoxious acts. However, he still finds that Nurse Ratched is going to keep him in the hospital for as long as she wants. He tries to be subdued, and in doing so, another rebellious inmate called Cheswick, who had tried very hard to be like McMurphy, kills himself, because he thinks that McMurphy has been defeated (p. 136). Nurse Ratched sees the change in McMurphy, and to gain total control of the ward, she demands penance for the insubordination during the World Series. McMurphy smiles and nods, but destroys the glass that separates the nurses’ room from the ward, to show his true feelings (p. 155). He excuses himself, saying that the window was â€Å"so spick an’ span [that he] completely forgot it was there†. This shows how he is standing up to authority, and while he doesn’t change anything in the real world, it shows the inmates and himself that inside they are free. Part III describes McMurphy’s fishing expedition. He takes the men on an excursion on a fishing boat, much against the Nurse’s wishes, but by tricking the doctor to come along, he succeeds. While there is not much about Nurse Ratched in that part, Chief Bromden, the narrator of the story, notices that the Combine is working on the outside too – with commuters and houses and children (p. 186). He had been in the ward for about 20 years, and a lot had probably passed since he was younger. However, this glimpse into society makes them realize that they (as patients) aren’t as monotonous as this, and they can be more free than they are already. Within a week of the trip, Nurse Ratched is ready with her new plan. She tries to show McMurphy as a con man, stealing and wining money from all the patients. But she is shocked to discover that all the patients were happy to lose that money, as they enjoyed themselves, and weren’t using it for anything else anyway. After a few more instances of insurgence (McMurphy and Bromden’s fight with the staff {p. 215}; continuous interruptions to ward procedures {p. 229}), the final insurrection came: McMurphy’s party. McMurphy organizes for two of his â€Å"friends† to come to the ward for a party that would also serve as his breakout. After a great night, everyone falls asleep, and in the morning, the day-staff came before anyone can wake up in time. After searching for Billy Bibbit, and finding him unashamed of his actions the previous night, the Nurse gives him a guilt trip, threatening to tell his mother, and then locking him in the ward’s doctor’s room. Billy commits suicide, and the Nurse tries to blame it on McMurphy’s lack of respect for authority. Realising that any chances of surviving are ruined, and that his battle with authority is now at it’s final stage, McMurphy sacrifices himself (and consequently his mental-independence) by attacking Nurse Ratched, exposing her as a vulnerable woman, and destroying any sense of authority and control she had left over the patients. This is the final action between two desperate factions: the authority and the autonomy. The showdown ends with McMurphy being captured, but because the other patients see the nurse as a woman, and not as the dominant Nurse, she can never have the same control over them as she had previously had. McMurphy is lobotomized, but before the ward can see him in his vegetable-like state, Chief Bromden smothers him with a pillow, and then breaks down a wall to freedom. The patients never get to see McMurphy as a vegetable, so their last memory of him alive is his attack on the Nurse. McMurphy is remembered as a symbol of resistance, and as a hero against the authority that had cowed the patients for so long. I believe that McMurphy shows the reader that while the authority may be able to make you conform, you can still remain free inside, which is more important than anything else on earth. Because it is against national  regulations to take away freedom, and as long as you have your sanity and your mental independence, nothing can beat you.

Code of Ethics for US Government Service

Code of Ethics for US Government Service   In general, rules of ethical conduct for persons serving the U.S. federal government are divided into two categories: elected members of Congress, and government employees. Note that in the context of ethical conduct, â€Å"employees† includes persons hired or appointed to work for the Legislative Branch or on the staffs of individual Senators or Representatives, as well as those executive branch employees appointed by the President of the United States. Active duty members of the U.S. military are covered by the codes of conduct for their specific branch of the military. Members of Congress The ethical conduct of the elected members of Congress is prescribed by either the House Ethics Manual or the Senate Ethics Manual, as created and revised by the House and Senate committees on ethics. Executive Branch Employees For the first 200 years of U.S. government, each agency maintained its own code of ethical conduct. But in 1989, the Presidents Commission on Federal Ethics Law Reform recommended that individual agency standards of conduct be replaced with a single regulation applicable to all employees of the executive branch. In response, President George H.W. Bush signed Executive Order 12674 on April 12, 1989, setting out the following fourteen basic principles of ethical conduct for executive branch personnel: Public service is a public trust, requiring employees to place loyalty to the Constitution, the laws and ethical principles above private gain.Employees shall not hold financial interests that conflict with the conscientious performance of duty.Employees shall not engage in financial transactions using nonpublic Government information or allow the improper use of such information to further any private interest.An employee shall not, except as permitted ... solicit or accept any gift or other items of monetary value from any person or entity seeking official action from, doing business with, or conducting activities regulated by the employees agency, or whose interests may be substantially affected by the performance or nonperformance of the employees duties.Employees shall put forth honest effort in the performance of their duties.Employees shall not knowingly make unauthorized commitments or promises of any kind purporting to bind the Government.Employees shall not use public offic e for private gain. Employees shall act impartially and not give preferential treatment to any private organization or individual.Employees shall protect and conserve Federal property and shall not use it for other than authorized activities.Employees shall not engage in outside employment or activities, including seeking or negotiating for employment, that conflict with official Government duties and responsibilities.Employees shall disclose waste, fraud, abuse, and corruption to appropriate authorities.Employees shall satisfy in good faith their obligations as citizens, including all just financial obligations, especially those- such as Federal, State, or local taxes- that are imposed by law.Employees shall adhere to all laws and regulations that provide equal opportunity for all Americans regardless of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, or handicap.Employees shall endeavor to avoid any actions creating the appearance that they are violating the law or the ethical standards set forth in this part. Whether particular circumstances create an appearance that the law or these standards have been violated shall be determined from the perspective of a reasonable person with knowledge of the relevant facts. The federal regulation enforcing these 14 rules of conduct (as amended) is now codified and fully explained in the Code of Federal Regulations at 5 C.F.R. Part 2635. Part 2635. Over the years since 1989, some agencies have created supplemental regulations that modify or supplement the 14 rules of conduct to better apply to the specific duties and responsibilities of their employees. Established by the Ethics in Government Act of 1978, the U.S. Office of Government Ethics provides overall leadership and oversight of the executive branch ethics program designed to prevent and resolve conflicts of interest. The Overarching Rules of Ethical Conduct In addition to the above 14 rules of conduct for executive branch employees, Congress, on June 27, 1980, unanimously passed a law establishing the followinggeneral Code of Ethics for Government Service. Signed by President Jimmy Carter on July 3, 1980, Public Law 96-303 requires that, â€Å"Any person in Government service should:† Put loyalty to the highest moral principles and to country above loyalty to persons, party, or Government department.Uphold the Constitution, laws, and regulations of the United States and of all governments therein and never be a party to their evasion.Give a full days labor for a full days pay; giving earnest effort and best thought to the performance of duties.Seek to find and employ more efficient and economical ways of getting tasks accomplished.Never discriminate unfairly by the dispensing of special favors or privileges to anyone, whether for remuneration or not; and never accept, for himself or herself or for family members, favors or benefits under circumstances which might be construed by reasonable persons as influencing the performance of governmental duties.Make no private promises of any kind binding upon the duties of the office, since a Government employee has no private word which can be binding on public duty.Engage in no business with the Government, either directl y or indirectly, which is inconsistent with the conscientious performance of governmental duties. Never use any information gained confidentially in the performance of governmental duties as a means of making private profit.Expose corruption wherever discovered.Uphold these principles, ever conscious that public office is a public trust. Is There a Presidential Code of Ethics? While the elected members of Congress have chosen to adopt their own code of ethics, the President of the United States, as an elected rather than hired or appointed representatives of the people, is not subject to any specific statute or rule governing his or her ethical conduct. While they are subject to civil suit and criminal prosecution for violations of common laws, presidents are generally immune from punishment for conduct related to their official acts. In other words, presidents are generally free to lie or misrepresent facts, as long as they do not intentionally defame any specific person or persons in doing so. In fact, the only the only practical remedies to unethical conduct on the part of the president are the constant vigilance of a well-informed public, congressional oversight, and ultimately the threat of impeachment for â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors.†

Inventions and Inventors of the 18th Century

Inventions and Inventors of the 18th Century The 18th century, also referred to as the 1700s, marked the beginning of the first Industrial Revolution. Modern manufacturing began with steam engines replacing animal labor. The 18th century also saw the widespread replacement of manual labor by new inventions and machinery. The 18th century was also part of the The Age of Enlightenment,  a  historical period characterized by a shift away from traditional religious forms of authority  and a move towards science and rational thought. The effects of 18th-century enlightenment led to the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolution. The 18th century also saw the spread of capitalism  and the increased availability of printed materials. Here is a timeline of the major inventions of the 18th century.   1701 Jethro Tull invents the seed drill. 1709 Bartolomeo Cristofori invents the piano. 1711 Englishmen John Shore invents the tuning fork. 1712 Thomas Newcomen patents the atmospheric steam engine. 1717 Edmond Halley invents the diving bell. 1722 French C. Hopffer patents the fire extinguisher. 1724 Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the first mercury thermometer. 1733 John Kay invents the flying shuttle. 1745 E.G. von Kleist invents the Leyden jar, the first electrical capacitor. 1752 Benjamin Franklin invents the  lightning rod. 1755 Samuel Johnson publishes the first English language dictionary on April 15th after nine years of writing.   1757 John Campbell invents the  sextant. 1758 Dolland invents a chromatic lens. 1761 Englishmen John Harrison invents the navigational clock, or  marine chronometer,  for measuring longitude. 1764 James Hargreaves invents the  spinning jenny. 1767 Joseph Priestley  invents carbonated water, or  soda water. 1768 Richard Arkwright patents the  spinning frame. 1769 James Watt  invents an improved steam engine. 1774 Georges Louis Lesage patents the electric telegraph. 1775 Alexander Cummings invents the  flush toilet.Jacques Perrier invents a steamship. 1776 David Bushnell  invents a submarine. 1779 Samuel Crompton  invents the  spinning mule. 1780 Benjamin Franklin invents  bifocal eyeglasses.Gervinus of Germany invents the circular saw. 1783 Louis Sebastien  demonstrates the first parachute.Benjamin Hanks patents the self-winding clock.The  Montgolfier brothers  invent the hot-air balloon.Englishmen  Henry Cort invents the steel roller for steel production. 1784 Andrew Meikle invents the threshing machine.Joseph Bramah  invents the safety lock. 1785 Edmund Cartwright invents the  power loom.Claude Berthollet invents chemical bleaching.Charles Augustus Coulomb invents the torsion balance.Jean Pierre Blanchard  invents a working parachute. 1786 John Fitch  invents the  steamboat. 1789 The  guillotine  is invented. 1790 The United States issued its first patent to William Pollard of Philadelphia for a machine that roves and spins cotton. 1791 John Barber invents the gas turbine.Early bicycles are invented in Scotland. 1792 William Murdoch invents  gas lighting.The first  ambulance  arrives. 1794 Eli Whitney  patents the cotton gin.Welshmen  Philip Vaughan invents ball bearings. 1795 Francois Appert invents the preserving jar of food. 1796 Edward Jenner develops the  vaccination  for smallpox. 1797 Amos Whittemore patents a carding machine.A British inventor named Henry Maudslay invents the first metal or precision lathe. 1798 The first soft drink is invented.Aloys Senefelder invents lithography. 1799 Alessandro Volta  invents the battery.Louis Robert invents the Fourdrinier Machine for sheet papermaking.

Using zeitgeist Coherently

Using zeitgeist Coherently Using zeitgeist Coherently Using zeitgeist Coherently By Maeve Maddox Zeitgeist is one of those lovely German borrowings that packs into a single word a thought that would require several in English. Zeitgeist: [tsÄ «tgÄ «st, zÄ «tgÄ «st] n. The spirit or genius which marks the thought or feeling of a period or age. NOTE: In German, all nouns are capitalized. The OED capitalizes Zeitgeist; Merriam-Webster does not. German Zeit means time and Geist is cognate with our word ghost, which doesnt only mean the spirit of a person who has died, but can also mean an informing spirit, as in the term the Holy Ghost. Coined by Matthew Arnold in the 19th century to put a name on the spirit of social change and uncertainty that characterized the Victorian Age, zeitgeist has crept into the popular vocabulary where it is flung about without much thought as to what it means. A special interest group and Google have co-opted the word to special uses. Zeitgeist is the name attached to a movement launched by a group of social reformers who wish to reallocate world resources under a global government. Google has a statistics function called Zeitgeist that aggregates how often particular topics are searched over time. In the web context, a zeitgeist is an idea or image that is iconic of a particular moment. Some writers use it as a mere synonym for trend, or fad. Some plant it in the (usually) redundant phrase zeitgeist of the moment. Others, perhaps wishing to create a phrase on the model of Oprahs aha moment, talk about a zeitgeist moment. Here are some examples of the questionable use of zeitgeist: If it’s true that a taste for simple rustic dishes is emerging as the culinary zeitgeist of the moment, Trattoria San Pietro is likely to become even more popular than it already is. The Zeitgeist is getting all sticky. (Headline for an article about a trend to use use bees in the production of artwork.) Favorite Zeitgeist Moments (forum thread in which a zeitgeist moment is defined as Just little moments in any song that really grab your attention, even if you dont like the rest of the song its in.) The scoreboard flashed 715, fireworks erupted, the fans celebrated. Braves radio announcer Milo Hamilton famously captured the zeitgeist of the moment†¦ (Hank Aaron hitting his 715th home run)†¨ The only time it might make sense to talk about the zeitgeist of the moment would be in comparing the present age to a previous one, as Stephen Jay Gould does in The Structure of Evolutionary Theory: By contrast, the common themes behind the reformulations defended in this book all follow froma set of integrated approaches that strongly contribute to the Zeitgeist of our moment. Gould is clearly thinking of two Zeitgeists, Darwins and ours: Whatever the contribution of a Victorian Zeitgeist to Darwins thinking, or of a contemporary Zeitgeist to our revisions, the differences are testable Some popular writers do use zeitgeist in the sense of views associated with a particular period of time. Heres a reviewer of romance novels: I’m not sure why there’s this unwillingness to go along with the zeitgeist of the time in which the book was written, but instead to apply today’s standards of fashion or technology or pop culture as markers of timelessness. Stanislav Grof, writing about the biomechanical set designs of H. R. Giger, observes that the zeitgeist of the twentieth century is characterized by staggering technological progress that enslaved modern humanity in an internecine symbiosis with the world of machines. For Matthew Arnold, the 19th century author to whom we owe the term, the zeitgeist is much more than the prevailing world view at a given time in history. Its a force that influences events. A dehumanizing zeitgeist is something to be resisted. The OED gives this illustration of Arnolds first use of the word: I..took up Obermann, and refuged myself with him..against your Zeit Geist. Obermann was a book by French author Etienne Pivert de Senancour (1770-1846). Senancour disliked the trappings of civilization and sought tranquility in nature. Obermann is full of descriptions of Nature and praise of solitude. The quotation in the OED reference is from a letter to Arnolds friend Arthur Clough, who had written a poem that Arnold felt reflected the Victorian zeitgeist. In reading Obermann, Arnold was seeking refuge from a zeitgeist from which he felt alienated. To talk about a sports zeitgeist or a culinary zeitgeist, or a fashion zeitgeist when all one means is trend, is to waste a high-powered word. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Definitely use "the" or "a"Used To vs. Use To15 Names and Descriptions of Effects

Managing Global Hospitality Issues, Hospitality Management Essay

Managing Global Hospitality Issues, Hospitality Management - Essay Example This report stresses that strategic HRM suggests that human resource management practices of Thistle Euston are most effective when coordinated with strategic goals of organisations. Moreover the main proposes that ready linkage among the business strategy and the policy towards employees are key, in spirit they fit HRM with the strategic objectives of the Thistle Euston. The aim of strategic HRM is to ensure that the culture, styles and structure of the Thistle Euston and the quality and commitment of its employees contribute fully to the business objectives. This paper makes a conclusion that the development of various technologies over the last decade has had a significant effect on the way Thistle Euston hotels are booked, as well as the facilities that are provided within hotels, such as broadband Internet and digital TV. According to the Mintel Report, internet penetration appears to be far from slowing, reaching 57% of the UK population in April 2004, with broadband and interactive digital TV having both reached 19%. Many of the larger hotel groups are thus investing heavily in their online booking systems as well as providing Internet access within their hotels. Thus, customers have the opportunity to retain their home-from-home comforts, or in the case of business guests, office-from-office facilities and amenities. While hoteliers have held occupancy relatively steady during the downturn by cutting rates in the past, the recently strengthening demand indicates that rates can now be raised.

Marketing Plan about Gu Puds on UK Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing Plan about Gu Puds on UK - Assignment Example This report stresses that the company thrives on its brand image which was developed after lengthy and careful and analysis. It emphasizes greatly on its looks which was also developed after long and hard thoughts about what they aimed to stand for and what exactly keeps them going. The merging of the two brands resulted in rapid growth for the company. This was complimented with some of the tempting new packaging which featured their mysterious new characters The GÃ ¼ Decadents and also a manifesto for having a more indulgent life. The project considers development of the SMART objectives crucial and the foremost priority for the company as it helps to present the objectives in a well defined manner. SMART objectives are presented as the set of objectives which are specific, measurable, agreed upon, realistic and time/cost limited. Smart objectives help in the removal of all kinds of conflicts between the client and the internal stakeholders regarding the project. Gu Puds must ensure that all stakeholders of the company agree upon the projected objectives. This would especially applicable for the workers who are associated with the production unit of the company. Since the company seeks to enhance its sales by 10%, this would have to be agreed upon by the producers of the products who would be directly accountable for the increased production of the product. The increased sales must have adequate resources for complementing the strategy. This would help to prevent cost or schedule overruns. The present strategy for the company would require an enlarged and

Natural gas is the most economical and environmental friendly fuel for Essay

Natural gas is the most economical and environmental friendly fuel for motor vehicles - Essay Example The most common types of alternative fuels considered for motor vehicles are electric fuel, natural gas, hydrogen and fuel cell. Each of these fuels has its own advantages and the disadvantages . The best alternative fuel will be the one that is economical and reduces air pollution . There are various types of motor vehicles depending on the kind of fuel utilized in it such as electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel vehicles, fuel cell vehicles and natural gas fuel vehicles An electric fuel vehicle has the capacity of not producing any pollutants and even if they do, it is easier to control it. However, the cost associated with it is very high. Since the vehicle operates on electricity, the refuel time is high and refueling is not possible in case of power interruption. Such vehicles have lower performance than other types of vehicles. [Alternative vehicles, n. d] Hydrogen is one of the most abundant gases in the atmosphere. The utilization of this gas in the motor vehicles does not produce any green house gases however, it produces small amount of Nitrogen oxide. One of the major hazards of utilizing hydrogen as fuel is that it is hazardous in nature and is difficult to store in vehicles. It also has limited refueling structure. . [Alternative vehicles, n. d] Fuel cell produces electricity by the chemical reaction between cer

Nursing management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Nursing management - Essay Example The prevalence of marijuana use peaked in males and females aged 20–29 years (Maxwell, 2003). In young people aged 14 to 17 years, the drug was used at least once by 28% of persons falling in this group whereas in the elderly people, consumption decreased after the age of 40 years and the rate continued to decrease as age increased thereafter. The consumption of marijuana was much higher in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (50%) when compared to non-indigenous Australians (33%). Also, there was no difference noted in marijuana intake between those living in urban areas and those in remote and rural areas. The drug abuse was more in those with English speaking background than those with non-English speaking background. Women who were either breast feeding or pregnant or both consumed much less than other women. Marijuana is a mixture of dried parts of the plant hemp including leaves, stems, seeds and flowers. It appears green, brown, or grey depending on the composition. It is referred to by many street names such as herb, weed, grass, boom, Mary Jane, gangster, or chronic. It is usually consumed in the form of cigarette (referred to as ‘joint’ or ‘nail’) or pipe. Most often it is consumed with other illicit drugs like cocaine (called ‘blunts’) or tobacco. It is taken in mainly for the mental effects like altered state of consciousness, perceptual changes like hallucinations and heightened sensory experiences. The main active chemical having psycho-activity in marijuana is THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) (Astolfi, 1998). Other than euphoria and hallucinations, marijuana has other effects also. The immediate effects are blood shot eyes, dry mouth and throat, sleepiness, paranoia, decreased ability to concentrate, coordinate and react, along with impaired short- term memory, comprehension, speech and learning. There is decreased ability to judge distances and react to signals and sounds on the road causing accidents.

Life Styles Inventory Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Life Styles Inventory - Case Study Example On a critical evaluation of myself, I find the concept of power dominating other thinking styles. Occasionally, I overwhelmed with the desire to control actions and be in charge. However, this has always posed a number of challenges on my ability to provide directions as a manager. Power has created an unquestionable authority in the organization. The relationship between me and my employees has been impaired and a sense of personal authority and accountability at the department level has been lost. It has discouraged decentralization leaving me with the bulky duty of ever making each and every decision in the organization. However, in contradiction to the descriptions of this thinking style as shown in the lifestyle inventory, I have never witnessed the trait of coercion and intimidation in me. Often, I treat my employees with respect and listen to their opinions with an open-mind even though most of them do not like participating in the decision making process. Again, as opposed to the results description, I am usually patient and tolerant with my employees as long as the job is done as it ought to be. As my results would have it, my back-up thinking style is avoidance. This scale measures my tendency to use defensive strategies of withdrawal (Humphrey 229). This appears to be another true fact though there could be a few variations. Personally, I believe that problems are part of life and the preeminent method of solving issues is not by running away from them. I am capable of doing whatever it takes just to have the problem solved. It does not matter how much risk is involved. As some scholars would put it, there is no one best way of doing something. Similarly, I do not rely on a single way of tackling my problem of choose the easiest way out, instead, I explore more on other avenues that allows me to have my problem solved. This strengthens my ability to fulfill my role as a leader and a director in the organization Avoidance, as a thinking style has made me become more effective in my job as a manager. Normally, the practice of management is usually faced with lots of challenges, but my ability to solve problems has always seen me through the tough huddles in management practice. However, imperfections are part of humans and I do not believe that I have to be right at all times. Therefore, I differ with the description provided in the lifestyle inventory that people with this thinking style purport to always be right. I like being corrected when I make a mistake and accepting liability as a result of my blunders. On the other hand, my lifestyle inventory results indicate low performance on my humanistic-encouragement thinking style. This scale measures my interest to people and ability to care about others (Humphrey 230). Even though this was not the lowest performance recorded, humanistic engagement is an important style in the practice of management. As a manager, I need to be concerned with my employees and make them believe in themselves. They should also appreciate themselves for who they are and be satisfied with what they have. The lack of humanistic-encouragement in me compromises my ability as a manager since a manager needs to be listening and caring about employees. Presence of this trait in me might enhance manager-employee relationship and this has always proven to be one way of motivating employees. Suggestively, one of the things I should do better my humanistic-enc

Nursing management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Nursing management - Essay Example The prevalence of marijuana use peaked in males and females aged 20–29 years (Maxwell, 2003). In young people aged 14 to 17 years, the drug was used at least once by 28% of persons falling in this group whereas in the elderly people, consumption decreased after the age of 40 years and the rate continued to decrease as age increased thereafter. The consumption of marijuana was much higher in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (50%) when compared to non-indigenous Australians (33%). Also, there was no difference noted in marijuana intake between those living in urban areas and those in remote and rural areas. The drug abuse was more in those with English speaking background than those with non-English speaking background. Women who were either breast feeding or pregnant or both consumed much less than other women. Marijuana is a mixture of dried parts of the plant hemp including leaves, stems, seeds and flowers. It appears green, brown, or grey depending on the composition. It is referred to by many street names such as herb, weed, grass, boom, Mary Jane, gangster, or chronic. It is usually consumed in the form of cigarette (referred to as ‘joint’ or ‘nail’) or pipe. Most often it is consumed with other illicit drugs like cocaine (called ‘blunts’) or tobacco. It is taken in mainly for the mental effects like altered state of consciousness, perceptual changes like hallucinations and heightened sensory experiences. The main active chemical having psycho-activity in marijuana is THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) (Astolfi, 1998). Other than euphoria and hallucinations, marijuana has other effects also. The immediate effects are blood shot eyes, dry mouth and throat, sleepiness, paranoia, decreased ability to concentrate, coordinate and react, along with impaired short- term memory, comprehension, speech and learning. There is decreased ability to judge distances and react to signals and sounds on the road causing accidents.

Art Museum & Gallery Studies, Art Curatorship ( curatoring for an Essay

Art Museum & Gallery Studies, Art Curatorship ( curatoring for an exhibition ) - Essay Example â€Å"Front Door, Back Gate† took "domesticity" as its theme, complimenting an on-going Jeannie Finaley exhibit at the Hatton Gallery, a challenging yearly endeavour by students from University of Newcastle upon Tyne. The exhibit reflects the spaces and limitations of domestic life as well as domesticity as a theme for art. The group chose interior as â€Å"Front Door† and exterior as â€Å"Back Gate†; which showcases Hatton’s historical collection along with other works on loan. We used complementary home and garden furniture to create a welcoming homelike atmosphere. Traditional gallery displays are very different from the way we display art in our homes. Domesticating the gallery provides a refreshing experience for visitors and shows domestic art and artworks on that theme in a new context. The vivid â€Å"Red Table† by Patrick Heron reflects love and solitude as well as suggesting lifestyle and joie de vivre. Heron has an affinity for vivid, exotic and captivating reds in this abstract still life. The interior space shows a table set for one, giving a sense of solitude, but also loneliness. It echoes survival in that, even when alone, we still set the table. Domestic traditions have survival value too. The composition is inspired by forms and patterns extracted from domestic surroundings, activating the space around the objects, enlarging upon the subject to encompass the whole of domestic reality, or bringing the whole world in and simplifying existence down to a table set for one. Simplicity adds innocence and invites the mind to invent the story. It is provocative in the use of colour and contrast, yet mysterious as shapes are obscured while details jump out like questions. Leon Maurice’s â€Å"Net† photograph shows a sense of belonging. Likewise, the â€Å"Net† curtain photograph reflects a sense of place with a hint of voyeurism: a glimpse through a net curtain looking out onto a blurred view, creating a visual link

Intro Speech Self-Evaluation Essay Example for Free

Intro Speech Self-Evaluation Essay There was a bit of a confusion between us; she explained to me that the assignment was that we each had to write about each other and then switch papers and read it in class. This didn’t sound right to me because the way I understood the assignment was that I had to write about her and she had to write about myself. This ended up being the case since I told the professor our little situation and agreed with my explanation of the assignment. I could of improved in having better communication with my partner and emailing the professor before the due date to help us with our doubts. I also didn’t have much time to practice my speech due to a busy weekend. I only had about 2 hours on Monday night to practice in front of an audience. This led me to actually be nervous and a bit anxious over this speech, especially with the disagreeing over the actual instructions of this assignment. On my paper, it is stated that my speech was only 52 seconds which was very short compared to the 1.5 minutes that we had to achieve. For my next speech I now know that I have to slow down when speaking which is linked to having practice time especially in front of people. This assignment really made me feel a bit more comfortable with public speaking which really made me happy because it made me realize this class won’t be so hard if I really practice and follow the information in our textbook and lessons given by the professor.

Modelling Of 3 Phase Transmission Line Engineering Essay

Modelling Of 3 Phase Transmission Line Engineering Essay Transmission line is a medium to transmit electric energy from one place to another for long distances with the aim is to reduce and economically. Voltage, current, power and power factor are the main point must be considered at the sending end and receiving end. Typically, in Malaysia the overhead transmission line was used because cost and maintenance can be handle easily. As we know, the transmission line produced high strength of electric and magnetic field under the tower. Based on that, this project will modeling transmission line using Finite Element Method (FEM) focus on level voltage 275kV. The result of simulation of the transmission line model will analyze electric and magnetic field under transmission line tower. 2.0 Problem statement It is well known understand that the Transmission Line for 275kV produced high strength of electric and magnetic field under the tower. In other word, the field strength of electric field may create higher stress to the tower that may also tend to create high risk to the tower as well as to the insulator to be used. Another issue is how much tendency of magnetic field to be effect to the human and environment has be identified wisely. However, the real measurement under 275kV transmission line tower may give high risk. Therefore, the best idea is to carry out the information as mention above is by performing simulation study. 3.0 Objective To collect the 275kV Transmission Line specification. To model the 275kV Transmission Line using Finite Element Method (FEM) To simulate the 275kV Transmission Line using Finite Element Method (FEM) To analyze the electric magnetic field generated by the 275kV Transmission Line model 4.0 Scope The scope of this project are :- Specification is based on TenagaNasionalBerhad (TNB) 275kV Transmission Line. Transmission Line modelling using Finite Element Method (FEM) software. 5.0 Literature survey and project background AnÂÂ  electric power systemÂÂ  is a network of electrical components used to supply, transmit and use electric power. The main parts of electric power system areÂÂ  generation, transmission system, distribution system and load. At generation part, to generate an electrical energy on large scale, energy must be generate from the various sources energy such as oil, natural gas and other. Then, the transmission system transmit or carries current that generate from generation and distribution system feeds electric to load such as consumer and industry. This project will discuss further about transmission line system.[1] 5.1 Transmission Line Transmission line or power line are important part in power network. Other than that, based on theory, transmission line also can be describe as propagation of electric waves along the transmission line. There are many factor must consider to design transmission line. Such as transmission voltage level, types of tower, environment and others. The transmission line also can be constructed in two ways, overhead transmission line and underground transmission line. 5.1.1 Underground Transmission Line In underground system, the cable must be selective because all conductor must be insulated in this system. Therefore, the voltage level for this system will below 66kV cause difficult to find insulation for high voltage. Underground transmission line usually use at crowded areas because the cable used preferred compare with overhead use bare conductor not suitable at that areas.[1] 5.1.2 Overhead Transmission Line Overhead transmission line usually use for transmit electric for over long distances. In this system, spacing between the tower and the conductor are very important cause to avoid an electric discharge between the conductors. The appropriate spacing between the conductor will produce insulation between them. This system also expose to fault such as short circuit, breakage of line and lightening. But it easy to troubleshoot and repair compare to underground transmission line. However, it difficult to find exact point of fault cause transmission line are very long. Other than that, between the tower and the conductor must have insulation to make the transmission more safety when do it maintenance. [1] 5.2 Types of Transmission Line Transmission line be separated two part AC transmission line voltage and High Voltage DC transmission line (HVDC). 5.2.1 High Voltage DC Transmission Line The main factor affecting the cost of energy increases is the process of transmission lines to transmit the power to the load away from power generation. To overcome this issue that is usually done AC transmission line is using HVDC transmission line. The HVDC transmission line requires conversion at two ends, from AC to DC at the sending end and back to AC at the receiving end. The converter are static using high power thyristors connected in series to give the required voltage ratings. The physical process of conversion is such that the same station can switch from rectifier to inverter by simple control action, thus facilitating power reversal.[2] Figure 5.2.1: Variation of costs with line length[4] Figure above show the variation of costs of transmission line with distance for AC and DC transmission. Based on figure, before break even distance, cost of AC transmission is reasonable and economical than DC transmission. Before the break even distance point, the distance is around 500 to 800 km, so after that point or longer distance HVDC transmission line more economical than AC transmission.[2] 5.2.2 AC Transmission Line Transmission line also can be classified into three types such as short transmission line, medium transmission line and long transmission line. For short transmission a length less than 80km, medium transmission between 80km until 240km and long transmission have length more 240km.[] Normally, the power grids also have three level of voltage; High voltage (HV), medium voltage (MV) and low voltage (LV). In Malaysia, based on fact from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB), AC transmission line have standard voltage called National Grid. Below are standard voltage of AC transmission line:- i) 132kV ii) 275kV iii) 500kV 5.3 Modelling Transmission Line For this project focus on 275kV transmission line modelling. Before go through below some journal refer to this project. Based on journal titled Modelling and Analysing of a 275kV HVAC Transmission Line for Power System Transient Studies written by M. Z. A. Ab Kadir and C. Y Jay. In this journal, it discuss the efficiency and power losses of transmission line via the concept of travelling wave. This case study had be done at Kampung Awah- Paka, Terengganu. This paper was model transmission line using PSCAD/EMTDC software which they want analyze the efficiency between the frequency dependent model and PI-section model. Before design or model transmission line on simulation, this paper had consider three important parameter such as series resistance, series inductance and shunt capacitor. Based on tower information below, this paper obtained the parameter such as resistance, inductance and capacitance via calculation. From the information are given, Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) such as Table 1, design PI-section model. Line name KAWA-PAKA Tower type System Voltage Frequency Line length Conductor diameter Bundle spacing Ground to conductor height Horizontal spacing Vertical spacing Double circuit lattice Three phase 275kV 50Hz 160km 24.16mm 400mm 12630 7300mm 13000mm Table 5.3: Parameter of 275kV KAWA-PAKA lattice tower[1] After consider all parameter, this paper construct design PI-section model using PSCAD/EMTDC software for 160km an overhead transmission line. To model 160km an overhead transmission line, this paper used eight identical pi-sections are connected series which each PI-section represent 20km of transmission line. By terminating the surge impedance at the end of transmission line, the efficiency can be measure. Figure 5.3.1: Line surge impedance using PI-section model [1] For the frequency dependent model, this project used it as a reference cause it is the most accurate model. From this model also, we can learn the transient or harmonic behaviour of a line. Figure 2 show frequency dependent model. Figure 5.3.2 : Line surge impedance using frequency dependent model[1] Both model are carried out using three different test such as, short circuit test, open circuit test and line surge impedance test. Line surge impedance test is a real line with minimum losses and both other are used to demonstrate the behaviour of the travelling wave. Section Model % differences Pi-section Freq. Dependent Pi-section Freq. Dependent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 273.59 272.72 271.87 271.04 270.24 269.69 268.69 267.95 272.97 271.28 269.32 267.10 264.63 263.55 263.01 262.22 0.33 0.65 0.96 1.26 1.55 1.84 2.11 2.38 0.56 1.17 1.88 2.69 3.59 3.98 4.18 4.47 Table 5.4 : Summary of Pi-section and Frequency dependent model Result of output voltage of each 20km section are summarized in Table above. From the Table, result of this project show the output voltage of Pi-section model and Frequency Dependent model are approximately same. In the real transmission line system, we expect voltage level before step up or step down at substation are maintain. Based on Table above, compare the output voltage of the Frequency dependent low than Pi section because the frequency dependent model consider all losses such as hysteresis, corona effect, eddy current losses in nearby ferromagnetic materials and induced losses in nearby short circuited non ferromagnetic material while Pi-section model only consider proximity effect and skin effect. Conclude from that, the efficiency both model are acceptable and approximately same. An efficiency percentage for Pi-section model is 97.6% and Frequency dependent model 95.5%. This project successful in modelled Pi-section model using PSCAD/EDMTC software and analyzed by compare with Frequency dependent model.[3] Second journal titled Power Flow Assesment in Transmission Lines using Simulink Model with UPFC written by Ch. Chengajah and R. V. S.Satyanarayana. This paper discuss about the performance of a single and double transmission line system (6.6/22)kV using UPFC or without UPFC model. UPFC is a Unified Power Flow Controller which it can improve capability of power transfer or in other word to provide comprehensive control of power flow in transmission system.[4] This paper model the transmission line using Simulink to connected with UPFC model. Figure below show the transmission line model with UPFC device by using Simulink. From the figure show the double circuit 22kV and 6.6kV interconnected with UPFC model. UPFC device function to control voltage profile as the real and reactive power in the transmission line.[4] Figure5.3.2: Transmission line model with UPFC device[4] Table below show the result of power flow and voltage profile transmission line model with UPFC and without UPFC. Parameter 6.6kV Line 22kV Line Without UPFC With UPFC Without UPFC With UPFC Voltage magnitude(kV) 2.926 2.961 9.754 5.162 Real Power(MW) 0.274 0.281 3.050 0.854 Reactive Power(Mvar) 0.205 0.210 2.280 0.639 Table 5.5: Result power flow and voltage profile[4] Based on table above, this paper compare three parameter such as voltage magnitude, real power and reactive power. From that, an improvement can see for both transmission line when interconnect with UPFC. From that, this paper suggest improvement in transmission line system.[4] 5.5 Summary Based on both journal discussed different step to model transmission line. For first journal, using PSCAD software, the paper make comparison efficiency between PI-section model and Frequency Dependent model. The paper construct by consider parameter such as resistance, inductance and capacitor to model transmission line. Then, PI-section model had been construct which each PI-model represent 20km. The simulation had be done not like real transmission line system but result at end of experiment approximately same. Figure 5.3.1: Line surge impedance using PI-section model [3] For second journal, it use MATLAB/SIMULINK software to model transmission line. This paper discuss about function Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) in transmission system to improve voltage and power profile. This paper also consider value parameter such as resistance, inductance and capacitor to construct the model. Figure 5.5 22kV Transmission Line Simulink Model[2] Figure 5.5 above show example 22kV transmission line simulink model. At this end of this paper show result comparison between transmission line system with and without Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). Therefore, this project propose to use Finite Element Method(FEM) to model transmission line. This project will model transmission line like a real transmission line using specification Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB). This project focus on 275kV HVAC transmission line and will model like real tower for 275kV transmission line. Besides that, significant of this project also can see electric and magnetic field at transmission line. From that, this project analyze further about effect electric field and magnetic field to human and environment. 6.0 Methodology Start Collect the 275kV Transmission Line specification. Model the 275kV Transmission Line using Finite Element Method (FEM) Troubleshooting simulation Simulate the 275kV Transmission Line using Finite Element Method (FEM) Results Electric field and magnetic field Analyze the electric magnetic field generated by the 275kV Transmission Line model End Figure 6.0: Flow chart of Final Year Project 6.1 Collect the 275kV Transmission Line specification. In this process, the specification of data of 275kV tower in Malaysia is needed to be collect from TNB (Tenaga Nasional Berhad). The data that need to be collect is the tower height from ground level, the distance between phase to ground, the distance between phase to phase, and distance between ground wire to phase. Other than that, types and size conductor that used for 275kV also need to collect. 6.2 Model the 275kV Transmission Line using Finite Element Method (FEM) Based on data collection, model transmission lines tower with the conductor such as specification that used by TNB using Finite Element Method (FEM). 6.3 Simulate the 275kV Transmission Line using Finite Element Method (FEM). For this step, simulate the model transmission line 275kV that construct before using Finite Element Method (FEM). 6.4 Results Electric field and magnetic field The expected result are to modelling transmission lines using new method using FEM. Other than that, this project also expected to produce electric field and magnetic field at transmission lines from one point to next point. 6.5 Analyze the electric magnetic field generated by the 275kV Transmission Line Analyze the electric magnetic field around transmission line 275kV model based on display from simulation. 7.0 Expected Results/Benefit The result of this project should be able to design transmission line model using Finite Element Method (FEM) where the model must satisfied 275kV transmission line specification from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB). The model are include electric field and magnetic field. From that, analyze the result based on electric field and magnetic field around the transmission line model. This project will develop new method and new software to model transmission line with electric field and magnetic field by using Finite Element Method (FEM) from ANSYS Maxwell. 8.0 Milestones Task Date expectation Complete literature review on the design of Three Phase Transmission Line including the characteristic needed in design modeling. Nov 2012 Complete search and collect data of 275kV transmission line Jan 2013 Complete analyze the function of Finite Element Method to calculate the magnetic field and electric field. March 2013 Complete design optimization April 2013 Complete testing model with different parameter and analyze May 2013 Final report writing (including paper/journal writing) and presentation June 2013

Faust And Frankenstein :: essays research papers

Goethe in Faust and Shelley in Frankenstein, wrap their stories around two men whose mental and physical actions parallel one another. Both stories deal with characters, who strive to be the à ¼bermensch in their world. In Faust, the striving fellow, Faust, seeks physical and mental wholeness in knowledge and disaster in lust. In Frankenstein, Victor Frankenstein struggles for control over one aspect of nature and disastrously, through the monster, nature controls him to a much greater degree. Many powers are much too mighty for mortal souls, a lesson that Frankenstein and Faust learn by the end of their tales. While voluntarily excommunicating themselves from society, both characters accomplish a portion of their goal and yet they remain unhappy because they never control the "perfect" life they have built for themselves. In Faust, the intelligent gentleman Faust, seeks spiritual wholeness in knowledge. Through years of hard study, Faust becomes knowledgeable in math, sciences and religion and yet he becomes inept and incapable of having any romantic or physical relationships with the outside world. As Faust strives to become the "over man" through knowledge, he realizes that books will not satisfy his curiosity and that maybe sensual pleasures will. Therefore, in the process of creating his new life, Faust, becomes distant and unconcerned with all reality and humanity around him. Do not fancy anything right, do not fancy that I could teach or assert what would better mankind or what might convert. I also have neither money nor treasures, nor worldly honors or earthly pleasures; no dog would want to live this way!(p. 95) Obviously, Faust has fallen into a inhumane state of living, through the pursuit of the unattainable. He becomes greedy, desperate and feels justified in whatever it takes to achieve a position of the over man. At that time, Christians and society in general considered his pursuit for lust immoral, unjust and irresponsible. When Faust sets his sights on an object, whether knowledge or women, he demands nothing less of himself than that which will get it. In many situations dedication to an act is reputable; education, sports, career. It seems then, that to become the à ¼bermensch and pursue excellence, one must stay dedicated to one's goal and dismiss the world around him. In the process of creating his monster, Victor Frankenstein ignores the outside world; The summer months passed while I was thus engaged, heart and soul, in one pursuit.

Harvard business school case Essay

1)Airborne’s performance from 1986-1997 can be described as dismal. Throughout the period the company managed to remain profitable every year, but they underperformed the McGahan averages. Airborne averaged 1.72% ROS (including 1997, which was an outlier for this set), 2.46% ROA, and 9.34% ROE. This was compared to the ROS, ROA, and ROE of 4.7%, 5.9%, and 12.6%, respectively. Airborne also had lower margins than its competitors, FedEx and UPS, so it can be inferred that Airborne’s performance is poor not just in general but also considering the industry. It should be noted that the industry leader, FedEx, could not consistently beat the averages either, so the industry is not earning large margins to begin with. However, UPS does consistently beat the averages, so Airborne should not be entirely excused due to its industry. The strategy seems to be low-cost, broad based. Based on Exhibits 1 and 8, it is obvious that Airborne is charging lower prices than the competition. This is only half of the low-cost strategy. It would at first appear that Airborne is simply charging lower prices, but has not developed a lower cost structure because its margins are so low. However, there is evidence to support a lower cost structure as well. First of all, it would be quite difficult to have a similar cost structure and even turn a profit if one looks at the FedEx comparison in Exhibit 1. This is not the only evidence of a low cost strategy. At first glance, it appears that Airborne may not have a lower cost structure because of the size of their Depreciation cost versus revenue. Because Depreciation was the only cost that was present in the Financial Results Exhibits for all three companies, it has to serve as the number for comparison. Versus revenue size, Airborne actually was much higher than UPS, and barely lowe r than FedEx. It is important to consider what the cost means though. Most likely, the depreciation costs are based on depreciation of the aircraft, the major asset purchases that these companies make. If the depreciation cost is divided by the number of planes in the fleet, then Airborne appears to be paying less per plane, this could be supported by the statement that they use planes from the 60s and 70s. It would seem that the cost structure is lower in this case. Also the case mentions that Airborne is able to fill its planes to a higher capacity, meaning less costs incurred per item because the flight cost is spread out  over more revenue generating packages. Also, Airborne does not invest in the technology that the others do, such as tracking, that would add to costs and also be the mark of differentiation. Airborne also uses the cheaper ground method over air to save money, another low cost method. Airborne does not engage in costly advertising campaigns. Airborne is definitely pursuing a low cost strategy, they just seem to be doing a poor job of it as far as earning similar margins. In terms of the broad versus narrow based, there may be an argument for Airborne positioning themselves for urban markets because the customers they serve tend to be in the major 50 areas of the US. The fact remains that Airborne does not specifically serve only these urban areas according to the case, so they would most likely serve any part of the country. They do seem to be focusing on domestic shipments because they do not operate their own aircraft on international shipments, but the still do have international shipments, lending more weight to the broad argument. 2)Substitution: this is a major threat. The specific service that Airborne provides is easy to find from competitors, not to mention that there is no proprietary characteristic of the Airborne service that would necessarily encourage a customer not to switch with the exception of price. Imitation: The threat of imitation is not as high. If a competitor were to imitate, they would have to develop a separate cost structure, and the Airborne way does not really fit into their business models. If a startup were to attempt to imitate, then there would be many costs that would be quite prohibitive. It would be expensive to buy all the planes, at over $5m each, the airport, and spend the money on getting customers. Hold Up: This threat appears to be quite low. The customers will most likely not ask for lower prices, and the company owns a lot of the planes and inputs. The only conceivable threat is from employees. Pilots typically have unions (the case does not mention a union of Airborne pilots), so they could use that union clout to ask for more money. The only clue to the likelihood of holdup was the employee description of â€Å"frugal† and â€Å"strait-laced†. These are not words that usually have positive connotations, so this could be a hint that employees are unhappy. Slack: Slack is harder to gauge than the others, but it appears that the threat is low. It appears that company is cutting costs in all areas where they can. This bare bones setup would definitely not be indicative of a management that could produce slack. They could conceivably get slack because they do not work as hard via advertising and promotion, so potential customers do not know about their price advantages. The only really pertinent piece of information I found was that the capacity was listed at 80%. That leaves extra capacity that they could be using, indicating slack. This observation is offset by the fact that this capacity is still higher than the competitors. All in all, there is more evidence to support a low threat of slack. 3)I think that Airborne should adopt a distance based pricing structure. While it may present a threat to the cost edge that they currently have over competition, it also could lead to higher revenues. The company already has a cost advantage, so it should be able to still outprice the competition. The distance based pricing model could let the company gain some of the revenue that they are missing. If the company uses more trucks anyway, over a larger distance, the cost savings should add up, and Airborne will still earn a profit. The only major threat that a pricing change presents is lost volume because of losing customers. However, customers are used to a distance based system, as it is the industry standard. Also, if they have the lower price compared to UPS and FedEx, the main selling point is still in place. I would not recommend this change only in the event that Airborne would cease to be the cost leader after adjustments, because that would destroy their edge and model. There is no evidence to indicate that this could be the case, so I stick by my recommendation. 4)The relationship with RPS looks like it can be quite valuable. I would have to say that I do recommend a change in terms of service offered, and that in turn could be a slight modification of strategy. I think that, with main competitors offering tracking and other information services, Airborne needs to offer some kind of tracking service as well. The tracking service might have moved from being a differentiated service that customers pay a premium  for into an industry standard. Part of the low cost strategy is at least giving the consumer what would be considered a typical service. If differentiation increases the willingness to pay, I think that not offering a key service that the customer expects could substantially decrease willingness to pay. Airborne should forge a stronger alliance with RPS and take advantage of the opportunities. If they can take market share away from UPS and offer a higher quality service, that should mean more revenues. Airborne is currently outpricing the competition substantially; in Exhibit 1 they have almost half the per package revenue of Federal Express, and in Exhibit 8 they charge almost 20% less per package. The extra service could justify a higher price but keep them in the low-cost position as there is plenty of room to raise prices. This should make a difference in terms of more revenue. I am unaware as to the elasticity of the price of shipping packages, but it would seem to me that, as long as they have the lowest price, the volume should not decline. Another reason to join forces with RPS is the large amount of ground shipments. This is where they get the higher margins, and RPS can increase the volume. It would seem that a company should jump at the opportunity to increase the volume of higher margin activity. There is little discussion as to the costs associated with the relationship, but it seems to be implied that Airborne does make money from the activities conducted together. This would mean looking a lot more like UPS than FedEx, and UPS is the only one of the three companies with acceptable performance indicators. All in all, I recommend that Airborne stay with a low-cost strategy, but they should use the relationship with RPS to get some more customers and raise their poor margins. As it stands the company is not doing well, and this could be what they need to finally get the company to earning a decent profit.

Children and Youth Essay

The study of children and youth—or childhood studies—involves researchers from diverse disciplines who theorize and conduct research on children and adolescents. Woodhead (2004) aptly explains, Interest in Childhood Studies is for many born out of frustration with the narrow versions of the child offered by traditional academic discourses and methods of inquiry, especially a rejection of the ways psychology, sociology, and anthropology traditionally partition and objectify the child as subject to processes of development, socialization or acculturation. (P. x) sociologists use these four perspectives, childhood scholars trained in other disciplines also use these perspectives. I will then consider the usefulness of childhood studies as an interdisciplinary area of study and present a vision for the future of childhood studies within sociology. CONTRIBUTIONS OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CHILDHOOD STUDIES Historical Approaches to Childhood Studies Historical research informs what the concept of childhood means. Arià ¨s ([1960] 1962) made the first argument that childhood is socially and historically constructed. He did not view it as a natural state defined by biology. By examining works of art dating back 1,000 years, he noted a difference in the rendering of children prior to the 1700s, wherein children were depicted as little adults and not as a distinctive group. In agreement with Arià ¨s, Demos (1970) put forth a similar argument using evidence gathered on the Puritans of the Plymouth Colony in the 1600s, noting that children were not considered a special group with shared needs or status. These researchers asserted that the shift from treating children as small adults to children as valuable individuals to be protected goes hand-in-hand with other societal shifts such as the spread of schooling and the decline of child mortality. While Arià ¨s’s hypothesis has been challenged and criticized by historical research and empirical evidence (see Gittins 2004; Nelson 1994), his ideas have inspired social scientists to study ordinary children, and many studies have been produced as a result. As a dialogue w ith the Since the late 1980s, sociologists have made sizable contributions to the study of children and youth, and the field of childhood studies has become recognized as a legitimate field of academic enquiry. Increasingly, childhood is used as a social position or a conceptual category to study. Like women’s studies, the study of children has emerged as an interdisciplinary field. Researchers of children from established disciplines, such as anthropology, education, history, psychology, and sociology, have found a meeting place in this emergent interdisciplinary field of childhood studies. In the following sections, I will first outline the relative contributions of different approaches to the field of childhood studies. Some approaches find a home within one discipline, while other approaches are used by more than one discipline. Specifically, I will examine approaches outside sociology, such as historical, developmental psychological, and children’s literature, and then I w ill discuss four perspectives used by sociologists, namely the cultural approach, the social structural approach, the demographic approach, and the general socialization approach. While 140 Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 141 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –141 work of Arià ¨s, De Mause ([1976] 1995:4) developed a psychogenic theory of history, which asserted that parentchild relations have evolved to create greater intimacy and higher emotional satisfaction over time. De Mause explained that parent-child relations evolve in a linear fashion and that parent-child relationships change incrementally and, in turn, fuel further historical change. In response to this, Pollock (1983) dismisses the findings of researchers such as Arià ¨s, Demos, and De Mause, who assert the modern or incremental approach to childhood, arguing that â€Å"parents have always valued their children: we should not seize too eagerly upon theories of fundamental change in parental attitudes over time† (p. 17). While Pollock specifically counters the conclusions of Demos on children living in the 1700s in the Plymouth colony, his conclusions respond to all prior research positing that childhood is a modern concept. Historical research documents that the idea of c hildhood emanates from the middle class as members of the middle class first advanced laws to limit child labor and promoted education and protection of children (Kehily 2004). The shift of children from economic to emotional contributors of the family after the seventeenth century took place first among middle-class boys and later became the expectation for all children, regardless of social class or gender (Zelizer 1985). A good example of this middleclass perspective is illustrated in the writing of Mayhew, a social commentator from the nineteenth century (1861, in Kehily 2004), who writes about a disadvantaged eightyear-old street vendor from the working class who has â€Å"lost all childish ways† in the Watercress Girl in London Labour and the London Poor. While Mayhew calls attention to the plight of workingclass children in the mid-nineteenth century, other research (Steedman 1990; Gittins 1988) indicates that it is not until the early twentieth century that the childhood concept is redefined for working-class children in the United Kingdom. Child poverty and ill health were viewed as social problems and resulted in a shift away from economic to increased emotional value of children and altered expectations that children should be protected and educated (Cunningham 1991). The idea of lost or stolen childhood continues to be prominent in popular discussions of childhood (Kehily 2004:3). With this, historical approaches offer a great deal to the field of childhood studies because they allow us to view the concept of childhood as malleable. The childhood concept does not have the same meaning today as it did 300 years ago in a given culture, and it does not have the same meaning from culture to culture or even across social classes during a historical moment. Most historical research focuses on Western forms of childhood, yet these constructs may be useful for understanding certain aspects of childhood in non-Western contexts, especially when similar socioeconomic factors, such as industrialization, and a shift from an agrarian to a cash economy, may frame conditions. Ideas about how childhood is bound by culture, political economy, and epoch continue to be played out today in many non-Western contexts. For example, Hollos (2002) found that a new partnership family type emerged alongside the lineage-based system as a small Tanzanian community underwent a shift from subsistence agriculture with hoe cultivation to wage labor. These family types exhibited two distinct parental perspectives on what childhood should be and how children should spend their time. Partnership families emerging with a cash economy tend to view their children as a means of enjoyment and pleasure, whereas lineage-based families typically see their children as necessary for labor needs in the near term and as investments and old-age insurance in the long term. In this way, historical perspectives have the potential to inform contemporary cultural and social constructive theories on children and childhood studies. The next step is to move beyond Arià ¨s and the dialogue he cre ated to address the persistence of current social issues that involve children such as child poverty, child labor, and disparities across childhoods worldwide (see Cunningham 1991). Developmental Psychological Approaches to Childhood Studies Sully’s Studies of Childhood (Sully [1895] 2000, quoted in Woodhead 2003) notes, â€Å"We now speak of the beginning of a careful and methodological investigation of child nature.† By the early twentieth century, developmental psychology became the dominant paradigm for studying children (Woodhead 2003). Developmental psychology has studied and marked the stages and transitions of Western childhood. Piaget’s (1926) model of developmental stages stands as the foundation. Within the developmental psychology framework, children are adults in training and their age is linked to physical and cognitive developments. Children travel a developmental path taking them in due time to a state of being adult members of the society in which they live (Kehily 2004). Children are therefore viewed as learners with potential at a certain position or stage in a journey to child to an adult status (Verhellen 1997; Walkerdine 2004). Social and cultural researchers have critiqued the developmental psychological approach, largely faulting its treatment of children as potential subjects who can only be understood along the child-to-adult continuum (Buckingham 2000; Castenada 2002; James and Prout [1990] 1997; Jenks 2004; Lee 2001; Stainton Rogers et al. 1991). Qvortrup (1994) notes that developmental psychology frames children as human becomings rather than human beings. Adding to this, Walkerdine (2004) suggests that while psychology is useful in understanding children, this usefulness may be bound to Western democratic societies at a specific historical moment. Still, Lee (2001) cautions that we should not give developmental psychology a wholesale toss, noting, â€Å"What could growing up mean once we have distanced ourselves Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 142 142– †¢ –THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE LIFE COURSE from the dominant frameworks’ account of socialization and development?† (p. 54). Likewise, Kehily (2004) notes that considering differences between sociology and developmental psychology is useful, yet it is also useful to consider what is shared or complementary across the two. Developmental psychologists have not reached consensus on the relative importance of physical, psychological, social, and cultural factors in shaping children’s development (Boocock and Scott 2005). Gittins (1988:22) urges social scientists studying children to bear in mind the nature versus nurture debate. Bruner (2000) explains that both biological and social factors are important because babies are born with start-up knowledge, which they then add and amend with life experiences. Concurring with this approach, Chomsky (1996) explains that a child’s biological makeup is â€Å"awakened by experience† and â€Å"sharpened and enriched† through interactions with other h umans and objects. Walkerdine (2004) considers developmental psychology as limited because of its deterministic trajectory and sociology as limited because of its omission of psychological factors alongside sociological or cultural factors. Walkerdine (2004) points to several developmental psychological approaches to consider the social production of children as subjects, namely situated learning (Cole and Scribner 1990; Haraway 1991), acquiring knowledge through practice or apprenticeship (Lave and Wenger 1991), actor network theory (Law and Moser 2002), and the idea of assemblages as children learn to fill a child role in society (Deleuze and Guattari 1988). These approaches allow the researcher to include children’s internal and external learning practices and processes. As such, developmental psychology can continue to contribute to childhood studies. In the 1990s, sociologists helped cull and identify useful concepts and tools for childhood studies by criticizing develop mental psychology. As the field of childhood studies continues to grow into a defined and recognized discipline, useful tools and concepts from developmental psychology should be included. Likewise, Woodhead (2003) asserts that several concepts and tools from developmental psychology— notably scaffolding, zone of proximal development, guided participation, cultural tools, communities of practice—are also relevant for childhood studies (see Lave and Wenger 1991; Mercer 1995; Rogoff 1990; Wood 1988). Psychologists’ concern with the individual child can complement sociological research that considers children as they interact within their environment. worlds are created. Hunt (2004) notes that children’s literature may be unreliable for understanding childhood because children’s books typically reflect the aspirations of adults for children of a particular epoch. Hunt (2004) holds however that children’s literature remains a meeting place for adults and children where different visions of childhood can be entertained and negotiated. In agreement with historical research on the concept of childhood, children’s books were first produced for middle-class children and had moralizing purposes. Later, children’s books were produced for all children, filled with middleclass values to be spread to all. There is agreement and disagreement on the definition of childhood when examining the children’s literature of different time periods and different cultures. For example, several books of the 1950s and 1960s—including The Borrowers, Tom’s Midnight Garden, and The Wolves of Willoughby C hase—depicted adults looking back while children are looking forward (Hunt 2004). Likewise, Spufford (2002:18) notes that the 1960s and 1970s produced a second golden age of children’s literature that presented a coherent, agreed-on idea of childhood. Furthermore, an examination of children’s literature indicates different childhoods were being offered to children in the United States and Britain during the nineteenth century. British children were depicted as being restrained, while American children were described as independent and having boundless opportunity (Hunt 2004). In this way, culture and children’s material world coalesce to offer very different outlooks on life to children. The goal of books may change, from moralizing to idealistic, yet across epochs and cultures they teach children acceptable roles, rules, and expectations. Children’s literature is a powerful platform of interaction wherein children and adults can come together to d iscuss and negotiate childhood. Cultural and Social Construction Approaches to Childhood Studies Anthropological cultural studies have laid important groundwork for research on children, and sociologists have extended these initial boundaries to develop a social construction of childhood. Anthropological research (Opie and Opie 1969) first noted that children should be recognized as an autonomous community free of adult concerns and filled with its own stories, rules, rituals, and social norms. Sociologists then have used the social construction approach, which draws on social interaction theory, to include children’s agency and daily activities to interpret children’s lives (see James and Prout [1990] 1997; Jenks 2004; Maybin and Woodhead 2003; Qvortrup 1993; Stainton Rogers et al. 1991; Woodhead 1999). Childhood is viewed as a social phenomenon (Qvortrup 1994). With this perspective, meaning is interpreted through the experiences of children and the networks within which Children’s Literature as an Approach to Childhood Studies Childhood as a separate stage of life is portrayed in children’s books, and the medium of books represents a substantial part of the material culture of childhood. Books may be viewed as a window onto children’s lives and a useful tool for comprehending how and why children’s Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 143 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –143 they are embedded (Corsaro 1988). Researchers generally use ethnographic methods to attain reflexivity and include children’s voices. In this section, I will first discuss the social constructivist approach of childhood research in two areas, children’s lives within institutional settings such as day care centers and schools, and children’s worlds as they are constructed through material culture. Evidence suggests that young children actively add meaning and create peer cultures within institutional settings. For example, observations of toddler peer groups show preferences for sex emerge by two years of age and race can be distinguished by three years of age (Thompson, Grace, and Cohen 2001; Van Ausdale and Feagin 2001). Research also indicates that play builds on itself and across playgroups or peer groups. Even when the composition of children’s groups changes, children develop rules and rituals that regulate the continuation of the play activity as well as who may join an existing group. Knowledge is sustained within the peer group even when there is fluctuation. School-based studies (see Adler and Adler 1988; Corsaro 1988; Hardman 1973; LaReau 2002; Thorne 1993; Van Ausdale and Feagan) have added a great deal to our understandings of childh ood. Stephens (1995) examined pictures drawn by Sami School children of Norway to learn how the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster and its nuclear fallout affected their lives. The children expressed themselves through their drawings to show how the depleted environment affected their health, diet, work, daily routines, and cultural identity. Van Ausdale and Feagan (2001) explain how racism is created among preschool children’s play patterns and speak. They find that children experiment and learn from one another how to identify with their race and learn the privileges and behaviors of their race in comparison with other races. Using participant observation of children in a primary school setting, Hardman (1973) advanced the idea that children should be studied in their own right and treated as having agency. She found that children represent one level of a society’s beliefs, values, and social interactions. The children’s level interacts as muted voices with other levels of society’s beliefs, values, and social interactions, shaping them and being shaped by them (Hardman 1973). Corsaro (1988) used participant observations of chi ldren at play in a nursery school setting to augment Hardman’s idea of a children’s level. He observed and described children as active makers of meaning through social interaction. Likewise, Corsaro and Eder (1990) conceptualize children as observing the adult world but using elements of it to create a unique child culture. A few studies (see Peer Power by Adler and Adler 1988 and Gender Play by Thorne 1993) show how the cultural world of children creates a stratification structure similar to that of the adult world in a way that makes sense for children. Thorne’s (1993) study of children’s culture is set in an elementary school setting, wherein children have little say in making the rules and structure. Still, she finds children create meaning through playground games that use pollution rituals to reconstruct larger social patterns of inequality as they occur through gender, social class, and race (Thorne 1993:75). Similarly, other studies show how behaviors within peer cultures—such as racism, masculinity, or sexism (see Frosh, Phoenix, and Pattman 2002; Hey 1997; James, Jenks, and Prout 1998) and physical and emotional abuse (Ambert 1995)—are taught and negotiated within children’s peer groups. In addition, childhood can be interpreted through the material makeup of children’s worlds, generally taking the form of toys (see Lamb 2001; Reynolds 1989; Zelizer 2002). Zelizer (2002) argues that children are producers, consumers, and distributors. Lamb (2001) explains that children use Barbie dolls to share and communicate sexual knowledge within a peer group producing a secretive child culture. Cook (2004) contends that the concept of child has been constructed through the m arket. Through a social history of the children’s clothing industry, Cook explains how childhood became associated with commodities. He contends that childhood began to be commodified with the publication of the first children’s clothing trade journal in 1917. By the early 1960s, the child had become a legitimate consumer with its own needs and motivations. The consuming child has over time been provided a separate children’s clothing department stratified by age and gender. As in Cook’s thesis, others (e.g., Buckingham 2004; Jing 2000; Postman 1982) provide evidence to add support to the idea that children’s consumption defines childhood. Jing (2000) explains how the marketing of snack foods and fast foods to children has dramatically affected childhood in China. Likewise, television (Postman 1982) and computers (Buckingham 2004) reshape what we think of as childhood. Children are argued to have a reversed power relationship with adults in terms o f computers because children are more comfortable with this technology (Tapscott 1998). In addition, access to the Internet has created a new space for peer culture that is quite separate from adults. Through chat rooms and e-mail, children can communicate and share information among peers without face-to-face interaction. As a result, the stage on which children’s culture is created is altered. Social Structural Approaches to Childhood Studies Social structural approaches to childhood studies can be divided into two areas, those that distinguish children’s experience by age status and those that distinguish children’s experience by generational status. Because age is the primary criterion for defining childhood, sociologists who study children have found aging and life course theories that focus on generation to be useful. Thorne (1993) argues for the use of age and gender constructs in understanding children’s lives as well as considering Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 144 144– †¢ –THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE LIFE COURSE children as social agents. Therefore, it is how children actively construct their worlds as a response to the constraints of age and gender. Passuth (1987) asserts that age is the salient factor for understanding childhood based on her study of how children 5 to 10 years old define themselves as little and big kids in a summer camp setting. Passuth found that age was more important than other stratification markers such as race, social class, and gender. Likewise, Bass (2004) finds that children are active agents but also that age should be considered first as it may structure the opportunities open to children who work in an open market in sub-Saharan Africa; however, other secondary factors such as economic status and gender also structure the life chances of these children. Studies based on children in the United States suggest that age should be considered along with race, gender, and social class to explain how children negotiate power and prestige within their peer groups (Goodwin 1990; Scott 2002). For other sociologists, generation provides the most useful concept to explain the lives of children (Mayall 2000:120). Other researchers (Alanen 2001; Qvortrup 2000) assert that generational relationships are more meaningful than analyses focusing on gender, social class, or ethnicity. While the concept of childhood is not universal, the dichotomy of adult and child is universal and differentiated by age status. This age status patterns differential power relations wherein adults have more power than children and adults typically regulate children’s lives. Childhood is produced as a response to the power of adults over children even when children are viewed as actively shaping their childhoods (Walkerdine 2004). Adults write children’s books, create children’s toys and activities, and often speak on behalf of children (e.g., the law). In this way, the generational divide and unequal authority between adults and children define childhood. Mayall (2002) uses the generational approach to explain how children contribute to social interaction through their position in the larger social order, wherein they hold a child status. The perspective of children remains meaningful even through the disadvantaged power relationship they hold vis-à  -vis adults in the larger social order. It can therefore become a balancing act between considering structural factors or the agency of children in understanding childhood. The life course perspective holds that individuals of each generation will experience life in a unique way because these individuals share a particular epoch, political economy, and sociocultural context. Foner (1978) explains, â€Å"Each cohort bears the stamp of the historical context through which it flows [so that] no two cohorts age in exactly the same way† (p. 343). For example, those who entered adulthood during the Depression have different work, educational, and family experiences compared with individuals who entered adulthood during the affluent 1950s. Those of each cohort face the same larger social and political milieu and therefore may develop similar attitudes. The social structural child posits that childhood may be identified structurally by societal factors that are larger than age status but help create age status in a childhood process (Qvortrup 1994). Children can be treated by researchers as having the same standing as adult research subjects but also may be handled differently based on features of the social structure. The resulting social structural child has a set of u niversal traits that are related to the institutional structure of societies (Qvortrup 1993). Changes in social norms or values regarding children are tied to universal traits as well as related to the social institutions within a particular society. Demographic Approaches to Childhood Studies Much of American sociology takes a top-down approach to the study of children and views children as being interlinked with the larger family structure. It is in this vein that family instability leading to divorce, family poverty, and family employment may affect children’s experiences. For example, Hernandez (1993) examines the American family using U.S. Census data from the twentieth century and notes a series of revolutions in the family—such as in decreased family size and the emergence of the two-earner family—that in turn affected children’s well-being and childhood experiences. Children from smaller families and higher incomes typically attain more education and take higher-paid employment. Hernandez (1993) contends that mothers’ increased participation in work outside the home led to a labor force revolution, which in turn initiated a child care revolution, as the proportion of preschoolers with two working parents increased from 13 percent in 1940 to 50 percent in 1987. More recent data indicate that about 70 percent of the mothers of preschoolers work outside the home (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2002). This child care revolution changes the structure of childhood for most American children. Time diary data indicate that the amount of children’s household chores increased from 1981 to 1997 (Hofferth and Sandberg 2001). Lee, Schneider, and Waite (2003) further note that when mothers work in the United States, children do more than their fathers to make up for the household labor gap caused when mothers work. Hence, expectations for children and childhood are altered because of a larger family framework of considerations and expectations. Family life structures children’s well-being. When marriages break up, there are real consequences in terms of transitions and loss of income that children experience. The structural effects on children of living in smaller, more diverse, and less stable families are still being investigated. Moore, Jeki elek, and Emig (2002) assert that family structure does matter in children’s lives and that children fare better in families headed by two biological, married parents in a low-conflict marriage. Some research indicates that financial support from fathers after a divorce is low (Crowell and Leaper 1994). Coontz (1997) maintains that divorce and single parenthood generally exacerbate preexisting financial uncertainty. These impoverished conditions may diminish children’s physical and emotional Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 145 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –145 development and adversely affect school performance and social behaviors. However, this is not in all cases. Research (Cherlin et al. 1991) shows that children of separated or divorced families have usually experienced parental conflict and behavioral and educational problems before the family broke up. Hernandez (1993) suggests that the parental conflict and not the divorce or separation may provide more insight into children’s disadvantages. Hetherington and Kelly (2002) found that about three-fourths of children whose parents divorced adjusted within six years and ranked the same on behavioral and educational outcomes as children from intact families. Another study (Smart, Neale, and Wade 2001) finds positive attributes of children of divorce as children reported that they were more independent than friends who had not experienced divorce. The demographic study of children has taken place predominantly from the policy or public family vantage point with the assumption that there are consequences for children. Childhoods are typically framed with a perspective that views children’s worlds as being derivative of larger social forces and structures. Very little agency is noted or measured in these studies. While the demographic approach does not offer detailed explanation like research put forth by social constructivist childhood scholars (see James and Prout 1990), this approach provides a valuable perspective for framing and interpreting children’s lives. Socialization Approaches to Childhood Studies Research indicates that socialization may affect both children and parents. Developmental psychology allows us to consider how children are affected by the socialization provided by parents, and more recent research put forth by psychologists and sociologists suggests that this exchange of information may be a two-way process. LaReau (2002) puts forth a more traditional model of socialization as she details how American families of different races and classes provide different childhoods for their children. In her research, the focus is on how children and parents actively construct childhood even as they are possibly constrained by race and class. She found evidence for two types of child rearing, concerted cultivation among middle- and upper-middle-class children, and the emergence of natural growth among working- and lower-class children. LaReau’s study describes the process that puts lower- and higher-class children on different roads in childhood that translate into vastl y different opportunities in adulthood. Rossi and Rossi (1990) studied parent-child relationships across the life course and found that parents shape their children as well as their grandchildren through parenting styles, shared genes, social status, and belief systems. Alwin (2001) asserts that while rearing children is both a public and private matter, the daily teaching of children the rules and roles in society largely falls to parents. Furthermore, Alwin (2001) explains how American parental expectations for their children have changed over the last half-century, noting an increased emphasis on self-discipline through children’s activities that help develop autonomy and self-reliance. Zinnecker (2001) notes a parallel trend in Europe toward individualism and negotiation, and away from coercion in parenting styles. In contrast, Ambert’s (1992) The Effect of Children on Parents questions the assumptions of the socialization perspective and posits that socialization is a two-way process. Ambert argues that having children can influence one’s health, income, career opportunities, values and attitudes, feelings of control, life plans, and the quality of interpersonal relations. She questions the causality of certain problematic children’s behaviors, such as clinginess among some young children or frequent crying among premature babies. Ambert contends that children’s behavior socializes parents in a patterned way, which agrees with the sentiment of de Winter (1997) regarding autistic children and that Skolnick (1978) regarding harsh child-rearing methods. Likewise, psychologist Harris (1998) argues that the parental nurture or socialization fails to ground the direction of causation with empirical data. She explains that parenting styles are the effect of a child’s temperament and that parents’ socialization has little influence compared with other influences such as heredity and children’s peer groups. Harris’s approach, known as group socialization theory, posits that after controlling for differences in heredity, little variance can be explained by children’s socialization in the home environment. Harris provides evidence that most children develop one behavioral system that they use at home and a different behavioral system for use elsewhere by middle childhood. Group socialization theory can then explain why immigrant children learn one language in the home and another language outside the home, and their native language is the one they speak with their peers (Harris 1998). Likewise, other studies (Galinski 1999; Smart et al. 2001) find evidence that children play a supportive role and nurture their parents. In a parallel but opposing direction, other studies suggest that having children negatively affects parents’ lifestyles and standards of living (Boocock 1976) and disproportionately and negatively affects women’s career and income potentials (Cri ttenden 2001). Indeed, research indicates that socialization may affect both children and parents. While most research concentrates on the socialization of children by parents and societal institutions, more research should focus on the socialization of parents. In this way, children may be viewed as affecting the worlds of their parents, which in turn may affect children. Interdisciplinary Involvement and Implications Childhood research benefits from the involvement of a diverse range of disciplines. On the surface these approaches appear to have disagreement in terms of methods and theoretical underpinnings, yet these approaches challenge more traditional disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and anthropology to consider what best interprets children’s lives. In some cases, the interaction across Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 146 146– †¢ –THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE LIFE COURSE disciplines creates new approaches, such as those of sociologists who use general socialization theory from developmental psychology. Similarly, historical research on the value of children being tied to a certain epoch with a specific level of political economy can inform the valuation of children and their labor in poorer countries around the globe today. There is a need for continued interdisciplinary collaboration, and thought is being given to how children and childhood studies could emerge as a recognized interdisciplinary field of inquiry. Woodhead (2003) offers three models for interdisciplinary effort for advancing the study of children and childhoods: (1) a clearinghouse model, (2) a pick ‘n’ mix model, and (3) a rebranding model. The clearinghouse model (Woodhead 2003) would include all studies of children and childhood, all research questions and methodologies, and all disciplines that are interested. This clearinghouse model would view different approaches t o the study of children for their complementary value and would encourage researchers to ask â€Å"different but equally valid questions† (James et al. 1998:188). The pick ‘n’ mix model (Woodhead 2003) envisions that an array of child-centered approaches would be selectively included in the study of children. If this were to happen, the process of selection could complicate and hamper the field of childhood studies in general. Fences may be useful in terms of demarcating the path for childhood scholars but also may obstruct the vista on the other side. The rebranding model (Woodhead 2003) would involve researchers collaborating across disciplines on research involving children while informing and remaining housed within more traditional disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and psychology. In this scenario, children and childhood scholars remain within sociology while also being committed to interdisciplinary involvement. This scenario has served to strengthen sociological research in general. For example, James and Prout (1990) coined the term sociological study of childhood, and later James et al. (1998) developed the con cept of sociological child. More recently, Mayall (2002) has suggested the use of the term sociology of childhood to move children and childhood studies to a more central place within sociology. In turn, this strengthens children and childhood studies across disciplines by forging a place for children in the traditional discipline. The field of interdisciplinary childhood studies has the potential to widen its reach by creating constituencies across older disciplines. Additionally, childhood studies can learn from the development experience of other interdisciplinary fields such as women’s studies or gerontology. Oakley (1994:13) asserts the shared concerns across the academic study of women and children because women and children are socially linked and represent social minority groups. In a similar vein, Bluebond-Langner (2000) notes a parallel in scholarly potential for childhood studies of the magnitude of women’s studies, predicting that childhood studies will aff ect the twenty-first century in much the same way as women’s studies has the twentieth century. Weighing the contributions across disciplines, it is clear that developmental psychology has laid the groundwork for the field of childhood studies, yet the resulting conversation across scholars and disciplines has produced a field that is much greater than the contributions of any one contributing discipline. Therefore, childhood scholars have much to gain through conversation and collaboration. CONSIDERING SOCIOLOGY AND CHILDHOOD STUDIES Within sociology, scholars approach the study of children in many ways. Some sociologists take a strict social constructivist approach, while others meld this approach to a prism that considers social structures that are imposed on children. Some sociologists focus on demographic change, while others continue to focus on aspects of socialization as childhoods are constructed through forces such as consumer goods, child labor, children’s rights, and public policy. All these scholars add to the research vitality and breadth of childhood studies. In addition, children and childhood studies research centers, degree programs, and courses began to be established in the 1990s, most of which have benefited from the contributions of sociologists and the theories and methods of sociology. Childhood studies gained firm ground in 1992 in the United States when members of the American Sociological Association (ASA) formed the Section on the Sociology of Children. Later, the section name wa s changed to the Section on the Sociology of Children and Youth to promote inclusiveness with scholars who research the lives of adolescents. In addition to including adolescents, American sociologists are also explicitly open to all methods and theories that focus on children. The agenda of the Children and Youth Section has been furthered by its members’ initiation and continued publication of the annual volume Sociological Studies of Children since 1986. In agreement with the ASA section name addition, the volume recently augmented the volume name with and Youth and became formalized as the annual volume of ASA Children and Youth Section. The volume was initially developed and edited by Patricia and Peter Adler and later edited by Nancy Mandell, David Kinney, and Katherine Brown Rosier. Outside the United States, the study of children by sociologists has gained considerable ground through the International Sociological Association Research Group 53 on Childhood, which was established in 1994. Two successful international journals, Childhood and Children and Society, promote scholarly research on children from many disciplines and approaches. In particular, British childhood researchers have brought considerable steam to the development of childhood studies through curriculum development. Specifically, childhood researchers wrote four introductory textbooks published by Wiley for a target Bryant-45099 Part III.qxd 10/18/2006 7:43 PM Page 147 The Sociology of Children and Youth– †¢ –147 class on childhood offered by the Open University in 2003. The books are Understanding Childhood by Woodhead and Montgomery (2003), Childhoods in Context by Maybin and Woodhead (2003), Children’s Cultural Worlds by Kehily and Swann (2003), and Changing Childhoods by Montgomery, Burr, and Woodhead (2003). The relationship between the discipline of sociology and childhood studies appears to be symbiotic. Even as sociologists assert that the study of children is its own field, this does not preclude the development of childhood studies across disciplinary boundaries. Sociologists capture the social position or status of children and have the methods for examining how childhood is socially constructed or situated within a given society. Sociologists can also continue to find common ground with other childhood scholars from other disciplines to develop better methods and refine theories that explain children’s lives. Advances in the interdisciplinary field of childhood studi es serves to strengthen the research of sociologists who focus their work on children. Likewise, sociological challenges to the interdisciplinary field of childhood studies since the 1990s have provided useful points of critique and improvement to the study of children’s behavior and children’s lives. CURRENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH: SOCIAL POLICY AND CHILDREN’S RIGHTS Current and future research on children falls into two main areas, social policy and children’s rights. Arguably, there is some overlap between these two large themes. Indeed, Stainton Rogers (2004) maintains that social policy is motivated by a concern for children, yet children have very little to no political or legal voice. Children do not vote or decide what is in their best interests or what children’s rights are. Social policy requires us to consider the intersection of children as dependents or not yet adults and children as having certain rights. It has previously been noted that children are citizens and should be treated as citizens but with their own concerns (James and Prout 1997), yet there is still much to be clarified. Public policy can be used to improve the lives of children. Research has established that poverty matters in the lives of children, as measured in child well-being indicators, and public policies have been enacted to help families rise out of poverty (Hernandez 1993). Research on the impact of increased income after a casino opened on a Cherokee reservation indicates that Native-American children who were raised out of poverty had a decreased incidence of behavior disorders (Costello et al. 2003). At other times, public policies affect children as a byproduct or consequence. One example is the 1996 Welfare Reform Law (or PRWORA), which made work mandatory for able-bodied, American adults and put time limits of five years and a day on receiving public assistance. Still, much is to be learned as to the effect, if any, of this legislation on children (Bass and Mosley 2001; Casper and Bianchi 2002). In addition to income, public policy shapes the experience of family life by recognizing some forms while ignoring others. A substantial number of children will experience many family structures and environments as they pass through childhood, regardless of whether the government legitimates all these forms (Clarke 1996). Likewise, examining children’s experiences in various family forms is a useful area of current and future study. Children’s rights can be examined in terms of protecting children from an adult vantage point or in terms of providing children civil rights (or having a legal voice). The view of protecting children is a top-down approach positing that children are immature, and so legal protections should be accorded to keep children safe from harm and abuse and offer children a basic level of developmental opportunities. In contrast, the civil rights approach asserts that children have the right to participate fully in decisions that may affect them and should be allowed the same freedoms of other citizens (Landsdown 1994; Saporiti et al. 2005). In addition, the framing of children’s rights takes different forms in richer and poorer countries around the globe. For richer countries, granting children rights may involve allowing children civil and political voice, whereas in poorer countries, basic human rights bear out as more important. Child labor is an issue that has been examined in terms of the right of children to learn and be developed and the right of children to provide for oneself (see Bass 2004; Neiwenhuys 1994; Zelizer 1985). Future studies wil l also need to consider the relationship between children’s rights as children become study subjects. Innovative approaches are being used to include children’s voices and input in the research process (Leonard 2005), yet there is still much to be done in this area in terms of developing methodologies that allow children to participate in the research process. Indeed, incorporating children in the research process is a next logical step for childhood studies. However, childhood scholars are adults and therefore not on an equal footing with children (Fine and Sandstrom 1988). Furthermore, there is momentum to include children’s perspectives in the research process at the same time that there is a growing concern for children’s well-being, which may be adversely affected by their participation as subjects in the research process. Future research on children should focus on the children’s issues through social policies yet also consider childrenâ€⠄¢s rights in tandem or as follow-up studies. It is generally the matter of course to take children or youth as a definitive given and then seek to solve their problems or create policies for them. Future research should focus on practical children’s issues and use empirical research projects to increase our knowledge of the nature of childhood. The last 15 years provide evidence to support the idea that childhood researchers should continue to bridge disciplines and even continents to find common ground.